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Vol. 46, No. 2 (2024) 251-259, DOI: 10.24874/ti.1531.08.23.11
Tribology in Industry
www.tribology.rs
Comparative Analysis of Wear Behavior of High 
Entropy Alloy (TiVNbCrAl) and Ti-based 
Conventional Alloy (TiNbCrCoAl)
Dheyaa F. Kadhima,*
aDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Thi-Qar, 64001, Iraq.
Keywords:
Pin on disk tribometer
Tribological performance
High entropy alloys
High-temperature wear behavior
A B S T R A C T
This research examined the relationships between processing, structure, and 
property at both room temperature and increased temperature for two BCC 
high entropy alloy (TiVNbCrAl) and Ti-based conventional alloy (TiNbCrCoAl) 
prepared using standard arc melting. Both alloys have been determined to 
have the BCC single-phase solid solution structure.To investigate the hardness 
and tribological behavior and processes at room temperature and above, 
microindentation and sliding wear experiments were undertaken. Both alloys 
display comparable friction behavior when sliding at room temperature, with 
an average steady-state coefficient of friction (COF) of 0.6. When sliding 
temperatures rise to 302 °C, the average COF for HEA (TiVNbCrAl) has 
decreased to a lowest value of ~0.4 due to the creation of a persistent 
tribochemical layer made of Nb and Cr oxides amid the sliding surfaces, which 
lowers COF. Whereas, COF for Ti-based conventional alloy remains at higher 
values of ~0.65. Mechanistic wear analyses revealed that the formation of 
tribofilms with low interfacial shear strength inside the wear tracks was the 
cause of this. The tribofilms were identified to be mostly constituted by multielement solid solution oxides, such as Ni2O5, Cr2O3, and NiO2, according to 
Raman spectroscopy. The Vickers microharness values for Ti-based 
conventional alloy is about 365±4 HV. Whereas, for high entropy alloy is about 
572±12 HV due to the solid solution strengthening. 
© 2024 Published by Faculty of Engineering 
* Corresponding author: 
Dheyaa F. Kadhim
E-mail: dheyaa.kadhim@utq.edu.iq
Received: 8 August 2023
Revised: 10 October 2023
Accepted: 1 November 2023
1. INTRODUCTION 
Since the Bronze Age, alloying has been pursued as 
a way to strengthen metals. Traditionally, a single 
element is used as the base material, and solute 
atoms alter stress fields to prevent mobility of 
dislocation and reinforce the material, however 
this typically reduces ductility [1]. One of the 
pertinent difficulties in materials science is the 
development of innovative alloys with superior 
mechanical, tribological, and corrosion properties 
all at once. Over the past 20 years, these techniques 
have been utilized successfully to the design of 
novel materials under the theory of high-entropy 
alloys (HEAs) [2,3]. Alloys with a minimum of five 
components and component concentrations 
ranging from 5 to 35 at.% fall under this category 
of materials. A stable thermodynamically RESEARCH

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Dheyaa F. Kadhim, Tribology in Industry Vol. 46, No. 2 (2024) 251-259
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substitutional solid mixture with the starting bcc, 
fcc, or hcp structure is a distinctive feature of HEAs
[4-7]. Using this method, we can create new alloys 
that have a Exceptional balance of toughness, 
elasticity, hardness, and resistance to wear. 
Outstanding corrosion resistance is ensured by the 
large concentration of evenly dispersed passive 
oxide-forming components, such as Cr. These 
characteristics of HEAs make them superior to 
conventional iron alloys as materials with multiple 
uses [8-10].
Wear and friction are significant engineering 
issues categorized as their reactions to a tribosystem. However, it is critical to manage material 
wear in order to lower maintenance costs and 
avoid material failure in service for aero-engine 
applications. For steady operations and a long 
lifespan, wear-resistant materials must be 
created. Because of the lattice distortion effect 
and high entropy mixing that supplies the alloy 
strength and inhibits plastic distortion and 
dislocation developments, high entropy alloys 
have recently come into use. These alloys and 
their distinguishing features have attracted 
research interest [11,12]. 
Numerous high entropy alloys with promising 
properties have been developed as of late, including 
the high strength (BCC) AlCoCrFeNi and NbMoTaV 
alloys as well as the high wear-resistant 
Al0.2Co1.5CrFeNi1.5Ti and Co1.5CrFeNi1.5Ti 
alloys. Additionally, it was noted that the ability to 
corrode of the multi-component Cu0.5NiAlCoCrFeSi 
alloy is higher than that of the standard 304-
stainless steel [13]. A high-entropy bulk metallic 
glasses (BMG) that may be plastically deformed at 
normal temperature includes CuCoNiCrAlFeTiV, 
FeCrMnNiCo, NbMoTaWV, CoCrFeNiCu, and 
AlCoCrFeNi [14].
In this study, two TiNbCrCoAl Conventional and 
TiVNbCrAl high entropy alloys were manufactured. 
Microstructure, topological and tribological 
properties were studied. Wear is considered 
significant occurrence in many mechanical 
components. However, little data on the tribological 
nature of TiVNbCrAl high entropy alloy never been 
reported in the literature to best of our knowledge. 
Therefore, we conducted hardness and 
unidirectional sliding wear tests on both 
conventional and high entropy alloy to examine the 
wear behavior and friction mechanisms during 
room and elevated temperatures.
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Two BCC alloys—a conventional alloy (TiNbCrCoAl) 
and a high entropy alloy (TiVNbCrAl)—with either V 
or Co were investigated. By using an arc-melting and 
casting process, ingots were created. The specimens 
had been finished and ground using conventional 
metallographic techniques for microstructural 
characterisation. Acetone was used to etch the 
specimens such that tiny precipitates and grain 
boundaries could be seen. The wear behavior of both 
alloys was examined using a Falex ISC-200 (Falex 
corporation) pin on disk tribometer in accordance 
with ASTM G99 [15]. In laboratory air with a 40% 
relative humidity, the sliding coefficient of friction 
was determined at ambient and higher temperatures 
(102°C and 302°C). The high entropy alloy samples 
were put to the test by sliding unidirectionally against 
Si3N4 ball counter faces with 3.175 mm and 23 GPa 
diameter and hardness. For all tests, the sliding speed 
was 8.5 mm/s, and the standard load was 0.25 N. The 
Hertzian contact stress was decided to be less than 
the alloys' yield strength at 0.6 GPa based on these 
measurements. For all testing, the overal distance of 
sliding was 200 m. For the sake of reproducibility, at 
least two measurements were taken for each high 
entropy alloy. An optical microscope was used to take 
pictures of the Si3N4 counter faces and the worn 
surfaces of the high entropy alloy samples after each 
test. To measure roughness and wear track depths, a 
stylus profilometer (Veeco Dektak 150 Profilometer) 
was employed. To obtain the cross sectional worn 
area, at least seven traces were obtained across each 
wear track. According to Archard's equation, the 
wear factor/rate is determined by dividing the 
eliminated volume loss over the total sliding distance 
and applied force. The volume removal can be 
determined by dividing the worn surface's area by 
the circular wear track's circumference, assuming 
uniform wear. Using a Rigaku Ultima III X-ray 
diffractometer with radiation parameters of 30 kV, 
20 mA, a Cu K anode, and a scanning speed of 2 
degree/minute, crystal structures were found. An 
FEI-Nova 200 dual beam electron microscopy 
instrument was used for the analysis of the 
microstructural development during the frictional 
procedure and the wear surface. Using a 532 nm laser 
wavelength, Raman spectrometer was utilized to 
identify the tribo-chemical phases on the worn 
surfaces. Using Shimadzu Vickers hardness 
measuring devices with a load of 9.8 N and an 
acquisition duration of 10 seconds, roomtemperature micro hardness evaluations were made.


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Dheyaa F. Kadhim, Tribology in Industry Vol. 46, No. 2 (2024) 251-259
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Microstructural and structural analysis
Figure 1 displays the Ti-based conventional 
alloy XRD pattern. As can be seen, a distinct 
peak of the BCC phase was found at room 
temperature for typical alloys. 
Fig. 1. XRD pattern of Ti-based conventional alloy.
In contrast, one set of peaks that correspond to 
either a B2 structure or a mixture of the B2 and 
BCC can be found in the high entropy alloy seen 
in Figure 2. 
Fig. 2. XRD pattern of high entropy alloy.
In addition, Figure 3 backscattered SEM image 
shows that both alloys have interdendritic and 
dendritic morphologies. Table 1 provides the 
standard alloy chemical ingredients. It should 
be noticed that Ti predominates in this alloy, 
followed by Nb. At room temperature, Ti24Nb-3Al has only one BCC phase, according to 
Inamura et al [16]. The martensitic phase was 
discovered to exist in Ti-18Nb-3 Al and Ti20Nb-3Al alloys at ambient temperature [16]. 
According to Guo's recommendation, the 
predicted valence electron concentration (VEC)
value for conventional alloy is 4.44, which 
indicates that the alloy should include a single 
phase [17], and XRD results are in agreement 
with this. The chemical compositions for high 
entropy alloy determined from the EDS data are 
shown in Table 1. Additionally, the AlNbTiV 
HEA contains a dendritic BCC phase, according 
to N.D. Stepanov et al [18]. Nb (24.8 at.%) was 
abundant in the dendritic sections, while Al 
(27.6 at.%) enhanced the interdendritic region. 
The valence electron concentration (VEC), 
which has been used to determine the phase 
stability HEAs. VEC is defined by:
𝑉𝐸𝐶 = ∑𝐶𝑖(𝑉𝐸𝐶)𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
where (VEC)i is the value for contuent elements.
Fig. 3. SEM images of (a) Ti-based conventional and 
(b) high entropy alloy.
a- Conventional
b- HEA

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Dheyaa F. Kadhim, Tribology in Industry Vol. 46, No. 2 (2024) 251-259
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VEC was used to explain why the AlNbTiV HEA 
produced solid solution instead of intermetallic 
mixtures. It was discovered that the production 
of solid solution on the AlNbTiV high entropy 
alloy requires VEC= 4.25 [18]. Senkov further 
said that the NbTiZrV alloy has A2 phase. 
However, BCC and Laves phases were present in 
CrNbTiVZr and CrNbTiZr alloys [19]. According 
to Guo's proposal, the multi-component alloy 
should include a single phase because the 
estimated VEC value for the alloy is 4.6. [17], and 
XRD results are in agreement with this. As a 
result, there is only one BCC solid solution 
without intermetallics.
Table 1. Composition of Ti-based conventional and high entropy alloy by SEM/EDS performed results.
Alloy Element Cr Co Ti Nb Al V
HEA At. % 21 18.88 18.68 21.65 20.05
Conventional At. % 5.2 6.19 68.28 12.46 7.87
3.2 Micro hardness analysis
The Vickers micro hardness pattern along the 
surface of both Ti-based conventional alloy and 
high entropy alloy in the as-cast form is shown 
in Figure 4. 
Fig. 4. Microhardness trends of Ti-based conventional 
and high entropy alloy.
The average hardness value for the conventional 
alloy 365±4 HV. The high entropy alloy, on the 
other hand, is made up of almost equiatomic 
components. The alloy only has one solid BCC 
solution. Its Vickers hardness is a respectable 
572±12 HV. In addition, The high hardness of 
HEA can be linked to formation of BCC phase 
which is enhanced by the addition of Ti which 
considered as bcc stabilizer [20]. Moreover, Al 
serves to maintain the BCC [21]. The alloy's 
mechanical attributes are comparable to those 
of AlNbTiV, which possess microhardness value 
of 440 HV [18]. Besides, the Al atomic size is 
considered to be larger than that of other alloy 
elements. This leads to lattice distortion and 
promote solid solution strengthening , thus 
overall HEA strength will be enhanced [22]. 
Moreover, Vanadium plays a vital role in rising 
the hardness of HEA as reported by Dong et al 
[23]. They studied the effect of vanadium on the 
properties of NiCoAlCrFe HEA. They found that 
the Vickers harness increased from HV534 to 
HV648.8 with increasing the vanadium and the 
solid solution strengthening was the main 
reason behind the rise in hardness values.
3.3 Wear behavior and tribology properties
3.3.1 Wear behavior at 27°C
Figure 5 shows the friction behaviour of high 
entropy alloy (TiVNbCrAl) and Ti-based 
conventional alloy (TiNbCrCoAl) at room 
temperature. It can be noticed that both alloys 
behave in similar manner and both alloys had 
the same value of coefficient of friction (COF) of 
about ~0.6
Fig. 5. Friction curve of conventional and high entropy 
alloy at 27°C.

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3.3.2 Wear behavior at 102°C 
The friction behavior of Ti-based conventional alloy 
and HEAat 102°C is shown in Figure 6. In comparison 
to ambient temperature, the friction is greater. The 
friction behavior also exhibits a lot of noise. For the 
Ti-based conventional alloy, the COF increased from 
~0.6 to about ~0.8 before reaching steady state. 
Contrarily, the COF of the high entropy alloy began at 
0.8 and decreased through a number of transitions 
before reaching the steady state COF of ~0.6.
Fig. 6. Friction curve of conventional and high entropy 
alloy at 102°C.
3.3.3 Wear behavior at 302 °C 
Figure 7 depicts the friction behavior of a 
conventional and high entropy alloy 302°C. The
HEA has a steady state COF of roughly ~0.4 due to 
the presence of Ni and Cr oxides which lowers the 
friction (which will be discussed later in Raman 
section). However, the COF of conventional alloy at 
steady state was roughly~ 0.6.
Fig. 7. Friction curve of conventional and high entropy 
alloy at 302°C.
3.4 Analysis of worn surfaces 
3.4.1 Scanning electron microscope of wear scars
According to the morphologies shown in Figures 
8 and 9, both alloys suffer from severe abrasive 
wear, which is evident in the form of plowed 
grooves and visible plastic deformation. 
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 8. SEM wear track images of Ti-based conventional alloy (a, b, c) and the corresponding Si3N4 pin surface 
optical images (d, e, and f).

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Dheyaa F. Kadhim, Tribology in Industry Vol. 46, No. 2 (2024) 251-259
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(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 9. SEM wear track images of high entropy alloy (a, b, c) and the corresponding Si3N4 pin surface optical images 
(d, e, and f).
The Si3N4 counter face's harsh asperities and 
the consolidated wear detritus seem to have 
generated the plastic deformation that caused 
the majority of the material loss in 
conventional alloy to occur through oxidation 
wear. However, the oxide particle-induced 
micro-cutting may also be a factor in the 
volume loss. Additionally, adhesive wear 
occurred, as shown by the material transfer and 
the creation of cracks and oxide spots from 
delamination. The adhesion theory states 
[24,25], When two contacting surfaces are 
moved against one another, The pairing 
surfaces' irregularities cling to the other side. 
When sliding, the worn materials will migrate 
between the two layers. The break off 
frequently occurs in the softer material. It may
be predicted that material is largely transferred 
from conventional alloy to the Si3N4 ball because 
the hardness of the Si3N4 counter face is higher 
than that of conventional alloy. The surface 
oxidation of reactive Ti serves as evidence of 
the presence of oxides at the worn surface [26]. 
According to the worn scar morphology of the 
multi-component alloy, the test was conducted 
under light wear circumstances. Slight 
adhesive, oxidation, and spalling of the 
attached material are the main mass removal 
methods. It may be assumed that during the 
sliding wear test, volume is transferred from 
the multi-component alloy to the counter face 
since the multi-component alloy is softer than 
the Si3N4 counter face [26]. Improved hardness 
and decreased COF of the multi-component 
alloy at 102 °C are compatible with the ocular 
observation of less wear when compared to 
traditional alloy.
3.4.2 Oxides determination of wear scars
According to the literature-based Raman 
spectroscopy database [27-32], inside the wear 
tracks, As illustrated in Figure 10, it can be 
ascertained that the extremely little wear scars
contains a variety of metal oxides, including 
Nb2O5, NbO2, Cr2O3, and TiO2. According to certain 
reports [33-34], metal oxides like Cr2O3 and 
Nb2O5 can lower the friction coefficient and are 
effective at preventing alloy fracture . Based on 
the Raman spectra of the two alloys, it has been 
determined that the inclusion of NbO2 and Nb2O5
in the high entropy alloy (TiVNbCrAl) wear track 
also contributes to a reduction in friction and 
wear as compared to Ti-based conventional alloy 
(TiNbCrCoAl), which do not contain a large 
quantities of such tribochemical components.

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Fig. 10. Raman spectra for Ti-based conventional alloy 
and high entropy alloy wear tracks at RT.
3.4.3 Calculations of wear rates 
The wear rate of HEA and Ti-based conventional 
alloys were calculated to be 1.12E-07
(mm3/N.m), and 5.55E-08 (mm3/N.m), 
respectively. The degrees of hardness are 
respectively 365±4 and 572±12. Intermittent 
generation of the wear debris is possible. 
Additionally, the Ti-based conventional alloy, 
which wears out considerably more quickly than 
high entropy alloy, has a deep wear track. 
Nevertheless, the high entropy alloy with the 
lowest RT friction coefficient has a little greater 
wear rate. Its slightly decreased hardness is 
probably to blame for this. 
4. CONCLUSION
The as-cast microstructures and wear behaviors 
of two high entropy alloy (TiVNbCrAl) and Tibased conventional alloy (TiNbCrCoAl) were 
investigated. Some important conclusions can 
be drawn depending on the wear test performed 
with pin on disk tribometer at room and 
elevated temperatures.
1. The main phase in Ti-based conventional alloy 
(TiNbCrCoAl) and high entropy alloy 
(TiVNbCrAl) is BCC structure.
2. The averaged hardness value for Ti-based 
conventional alloy is about 365±4 HV. Whereas, 
for high entropy alloy is about 572±12 HV, that 
is superior to that of Ti-based conventional 
alloy. This can be attributed the Presence of Ti 
and V elements which stabilizes the bcc 
structure and enhance the Vickers hardness.
3. Ti-based conventional Alloy (TiNbCrCoAl) has 
wear rate of 1.12E -07 (mm3/N.m), at RT. It 
demonstrates the worst tribological qualities 
when combined with increased friction. 
4. Due to its relatively ductile BCC solid solution 
and B2ordered phase, High Entropy Alloy 
(TiVNbCrAl) has outstanding overall 
tribological properties at low and high 
temperatures. The formation of an ongoing 
tribochemical coating between the sliding 
surfaces made of Nb and Cr oxides, which helps 
lower the friction coefficient. Due to its greater 
Vickers hardness of 57212 HV, it demonstrated 
a low rate of wear of 5.55 E-08 (mm3/N.m) at RT, 
outperforming Ti-based Conventional Alloy.
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